The Judiciary System

Recollection of knowledge via hypnosis has been used in many cases, but its effectiveness is disputed. Proponents claim that recovered memories have aided in the solving of many crimes, often corroborating with physical evidence which would have been impossible to obtain otherwise. Skeptics suggest that such successes are a function of simple chance, pointing to cases where its use on victims of rape or attempted murder to help them jog their memory in identifying an accused has caused sentences to be doled out to the wrong person. This is because the hypnotist might make suggestions that are more likely to be remembered as "truth". (See also false memory). Most experts recommend that the practice be used at most like a lie detector, to glean more information, and never as the smoking gun.

Hypnosis has proven beneficial, but not always in expected ways. During the Hillside Strangler trial, Kenneth Bianchi claimed a split personality carried out the crimes of which he was accused. Hypnosis was used extensively to argue that a second personality existed. However, due to faults in Bianchi's facade, it was proved that no other personalities existed and his insanity defense was discredited.

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Governmental authorities and qualifications

Governmental authorities, such as state licensing agencies, may establish minimum requirements for credentials that must be earned before one may practice hypnosis within their jurisdiction. Such credentials typically are called certificates or licenses.

In 1955, the British Medical Association, in 1958 the American Medical Association, and in 1960 the American Psychological Association all approved the medical uses of hypnosis. Even though they recognized the validity of hypnosis, medical schools and universities largely ignored the subject. As a result, the private sector became the provider of hypnosis training. This lead to a very interesting state of affairs; with so few physicians and dentists being able to train others in hypnosis, the private hypnotherapy school was born.

There was no authentic degree or diploma in hypnosis issued in either Great Britain, the United States, nor in any other country in the world. There was no such thing as a qualified hypnotherapist. There were only a few training courses for qualified doctors, dentists and clinical psychologists.

The World Health Organization has included hypnotherapy in procedure-based therapies of traditional medicine with an emphasis that hypnosis sits astride official and unofficial medicine.

Since the early 1990s two UK universities, Sheffield University and University College London, have sanctioned degree programs in hypnosis for medically, dentally, or psychologically qualified hands.

In 1998 there was great change in UK. It was the development of National Occupational Standards[6] [7]for hypnotherapy. The UK recognized hypnotherapy as a stand-alone therapy. There is a profession wide program of trying to secure National Qualifications Framework for hypnotherapy. City & guilds a national awarding body have been employed to accredit training program in hypnotherapy and counseling. In June 2002 NCFE,[34] a UK national awarding body, started external accreditation for the Hypnotherapy Practitioner Diploma courses supervised by the National Council for Hypnotherapy.[35] They have to study the psychology and psychotherapy relevant to their subject. In their syllabus hypnotism is to psychology as surgery is to medicine. As a surgeon must be expert in medicine, a hypnotherapist must be in counseling psychology.

So there is an accredited qualification in UK, but the practice has not been yet regulated.

Things are the reverse in the USA. The practice is regulated to certain extent. But there is no an accredited qualification. There is an explicit law in 16 states of US that regulates the practice of hypnotism. They are California, Connecticut, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, New Jersey, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Utah, Washington and Nevada (forensic hypnosis only). Connecticut, New York and Minnesota states have changed their status in 2006 or are undergoing change in the existing regulation.

But Hypnotherapy (hypnosis) is recognized as a legal stand-alone profession by the US Department of Labor. It is listed in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (079.157.010). The US Department of Education lists "Hypnotherapy-hypnotherapist" (9CIP 2000, 51.3603) under instructional programs. The Office of Administrative Law Judges Law Library lists "Hypnotherapist" as a "legal profession."

According to the Federal Dictionary of Occupational Titles published by the United States Department of Labor under Hypnotherapist 079.157.010 it is defined as follows: "Induces hypnotic state in client to increase motivation or alter behavior patterns: Consults with client to determine nature of problem. Prepares client to enter hypnotic state by explaining how hypnosis works and what client will experience. Tests subject to determine degree of physical and emotional suggestibility. Induces hypnotic state in client, using individualized methods and techniques of hypnosis based on interpretation of test results and analysis of client's problem. May train client in self-hypnosis conditioning". GOE: 10.02.02 STRENGTH: S GED: R4 M3 L4 SVP: 7 DLU: 7

In 2003, India also restricted the practice of hypnotherapy to Registered Medical Practitioners of recognized systems and appropriately trained personnel.[8]

In Ontario, Canada, the Hypnosis Act of 1964 was struck down apparently due to the ongoing difficulty of defining and proving hypnosis or a hypnotic state, rendering hypnosis and hypnotherapy an unregulated industry in the province.

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Depth Hypnosis, Soul Retrieval, and Addiction

There are many different understandings about the nature of addiction. In working with addiction through my practice of Depth Hypnosis, I have found that it is helpful to apply the diagnostic and restorative methods provided by shamanism to help resolve addictive issues permanently.

Depth Hypnosis is an innovative model which combines Shamanism, hypnotherapy, transpersonal psychology and Buddhism to effect change in a wide variety of imbalances. Depth Hypnosis takes the wisdom of the most ancient psychologies on the planet, shamanism, and applies it to a modern therapeutic context.

In shamanism, it is understood that imbalance is created by three possible conditions. These conditions are power loss, soul loss and energetic interference.


Power loss and soul loss both occur in reaction to trauma. The types of trauma which create soul loss can also create power loss. Trauma ranging from a car accident to emotional, physical or sexual abuse to negative internal self talk can create a state of soul or power loss. Soul loss is characterized by a loss of energy on a physical level, a lack of interest in life on emotional or spiritual level and a lack of focus on a mental level. Power loss is often recognized by the struggle or a series of events which appear to bad luck which occur in a person's life as he tries to overcome the exhaustion or depletion created by power loss.

In Depth Hypnosis, addictions are viewed as a medication for the state of soul loss or power loss. In my work, I have seen that people either use the addiction to try and reproduce the state of soul loss in a controlled way or use the addiction to try and erase the state of soul loss.

By taking an emotional biography of the person as well as a presenting biography of the addiction, it is surprising to see how predictable the onset of an addiction is in response to events which are viewed as producing soul loss or power loss. Divorce, death, abusive conditions in early childhood correlate with the roots of the addictive process. People will often say something like “Nothing was ever the same after that.” Or, they might say, “Everything has been hard since then.” These types of statements are tip offs that same major shift has occurred in a person's internal world. That shift is what shamans refer to soul loss or power loss.

In classic shamanic terms energetic interference is characterized by what is often called “possession.” That is, a person can become affected and even overcome by energy which is not his own. In shamanism, this can refer to as a possessing entity – or an energy which does not have a definable physical body. In Depth Hypnosis, energetic interference can refer to spirit possession, but it also refer to foreign energies such as introjects. Introjects are aspects of another person's personality which a person can adopt or which a person can be overrun by. This occurs frequently in parent-child relationships.

When speaking of addiction, one can easily recognize an addiction as something which has its own energy system and does not have a physical body. Addictions fulfill the main criteria of energetic interference in that they disrupt the flow of a person's life energy. By engaging in addiction and trying to either recreate the energy patterns underlying traumatic events in a controlled way or erase those patterns, a person loses choice over how he uses his life energy.

In shamanic terms, the remedy for the above situation is simple: remove the energetic interference and restore the part of the soul or power that was lost. But not necessarily in that order. Often a person must be restored to his power or his soul before he has the power or energy required to face down the depletion the energetic interference is compounding.

In traditional settings, the shaman does this work for the individual. By moving into an altered state, the shaman uses his relationships with what in shamanism are called ‘helping spirits' to find the piece of soul or power which is frozen outside of time. This part of the self is usually caught in the trauma, which created the soul loss – and it is as if the event is occurring in present time. By releasing the part of the self, which is frozen outside of time by entering into the event and with the help of his helping spirits, the shaman retrieves and returns the soul part or power, which has been lost.

Depth Hypnosis adapts this technique to create an environment where the person suffering the power loss or soul loss is assisted in retrieving the lost part himself. This is done through a variety of techniques, most of which are accomplished in an altered state. The Depth Hypnosis practitioner guides the client into an altered state where the person is able to perceive more about himself than he would normally be able to in a waking state. By following the path of the trauma through the effect it has on the body, the client is guided into entering the situation or circumstance where the trauma occurred and retrieving the lost part himself. The advantages of engaging the client in the process are numerous – not the least of which is that the person becomes empowered as an agent for his own healing and is not dependent on an outside source, such as the shaman.

Again, in traditional shamanic practice, it is the shaman, along with his helping spirits, who engages with the source of the energetic interference and moves it out of the person's energetic sphere. And again, this practice is adapted in Depth Hypnosis to engage the client in understanding the source of the interference, its effect and the ways in which the individual is participating in creating and maintaining the energetic interference. And again, the advantages are the same.

Case studies demonstrating the advantages of using Depth Hypnosis to address the issues underlying addiction are numerous. It is important to note that no two smokers or no two drinkers or no two heroin addicts have the same reasons for indulging in their habits. By using Depth Hypnosis methods such as insight inquiry, hypnotic regression and modified shamanic journeys the practitioner and the client embark into a process of discovery and healing.

One client, a 35 year old woman came for help with an eating disorder – bulimia. By exploring the role the eating disorder played in her life and following the energy pattern it presented, she was able to see how the overeating to vomiting was mimicking the soul loss and resultant overwhelm she felt at being left in charge of 2 younger brothers at age 12 after her mother left her father for another man. The vomiting created a valve which released the overwhelm from the food. This relief had not been available to her as a teen coping with trying to parent her siblings. Through the eating disorder, she was recreating the conditions surrounding soul loss (using food to overwhelm her) and correcting those conditions with vomiting.

By introducing her first to the power retrieval process wherein she encountered what in shamanism is called ‘ a helping spirit' and what in Depth Hypnosis is called ‘the part of the self with your highest good as its soul intent' she was able to receive internal stability she had not had before. With that stability, she was able to return to the part of herself which was frozen outside of time in the state of overwhelm through age regression. She was then able to effect a series of soul retrievals for herself. As her dominant internal state continued to shift from that of overwhelm to that of stability, her eating disorder subsided naturally. No behavior modification or suggestion hypnosis was necessary and the change in the eating disorder remains 9 years after treatment.

Another case of an addiction being permanently altered through shamanic means adapted to Depth Hypnosis methodology is in the case of a 45 year old man with a 25 year addiction to chewing tobacco. Through his work with insight inquiry and age regression, he was able to follow the pattern of his addiction to grade school. He had been a naturally brilliant student, but found that he could not maintain friendships if they other students felt he was smarter than they were. So he came up with a method of dumbing himself down – doing poorly on tests on purpose to keep him from getting better grades than the other students. The habit of undercutting himself continued when he left school through the use of tobacco. The tobacco left him irritable and unable to focus, so his high energy was depleted and his performance at work remained mediocre. This was a less effective adaptation to the social constraints, and he had not been able to stop chewing.

By effecting a power retrieval through the engagement with ‘the part of the self with your highest good as its soul intent' he was able to revel in the joy of being fully in his power for the first time in 30 years. During an age regression, he was able to restore this power to the 10 year old who had disowned it in favor of social acceptance. As an adult, he was so exhilarated at the prospect being able to function at full capacity, that it was easy for him to quit chewing – especially when he realized that the habit was reinforcing and deepening the pattern of self-sabotage he had so poorly understood before his work with Depth Hypnosis.

One last example is a 30 year old man who was addicted to several different types of ‘downers.' The state that all these drugs produced was the same – one of suspended animation where he could feel very little and thereby ‘relax'. In exploring the roots of his experience through Depth Hypnosis methods, it became clear that was recreating the state where he had spent most of his childhood. This was a state of numbing which had been able to produce for himself in response to severe neglect by his parents. In a way, it could be said that he was actually visiting this part of himself that was caught in the trauma the numbing was medicating by doing the downers. By doing a series of power retrievals, soul retrievals and removing the energetic interference of the numbed state, he was able to kick the drug habit permanently.

By adapting the ancient methods of shamanism into the modern therapeutic context, addiction can be overcome permanently and relatively painlessly. By challenging the client to participate in his own healing at the roots of the dysfunction, addiction can be successfully abated through Depth Hypnosis.

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Applications of Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy

It seems that it never ceases to amaze people the wide range of symptoms and circumstances that can successfully be dealt with using hypnosis and hypnotherapy.

However, before hypnosis and/or hypnotherapy can be applied successfully, there are a number of conditions that must be met for this to take place. The therapeutic alliance is paramount to the success of any application of hypnosis, where trust and rapport should be established before any hypnosis takes place. Also highly dependent on the success of the treatment is the BICE model, which relies on the individual's Belief, Imagination, Conviction and Expectation.

It can be argued that part of the hypnosis protocol is dependent on the placebo effect, where if a client expects their condition to improve, there is a good chance that he or she will be successful. However, hypnosis is more than that. It allows the conscious and subconscious to work together without conflict on the same idea at the same time and since conflict between these parts of the psyche results in anxiety, the root of many disorders, the therapist can utilise this tool to successfully overcome many problems the individual is experiencing. As a result, good results can be achieved when an individual's subconscious starts working for them rather than against them.

Before continuing however, it is necessary to distinguish between hypnosis and hypnotherapy: whilst all hypnotherapy employs the use of hypnosis, not all hypnosis employs the use of hypnotherapy.

Hypnosis, in itself, will only induce a trance state and, other than relaxing the client, is not of much use on its own. However, aided with the use of suggestions, the hypnotist can bypass the critical faculty of the mind to implant behavioural change into the client's subconscious. These suggestions can be effective for anything between three minutes to three weeks.

For example, if an individual is suffering from anxiety, it is possible to remove this block using a powerful suggestion, although this solution may be relatively short-term if the anxiety has been caused by an event, or series of events, earlier in life, as the client's belief about self will not have been altered.

Suggestion therapy is also useful for habit control. Whilst it is necessary for the subconscious to maintain certain habits, such as getting washed and dressed in the morning, it also holds on to all the other habits we have learnt throughout our life, including the unwanted ones. Example of these include smoking, and nail biting, and it is hoped that by the time the suggestion has worn off, a new habit will have been formed, and replaced the old habit of say, smoking.

Additionally, suggestion therapy can be useful in improving performance, including sports, exam nerves or driving test worries to name a few, by instilling confidence within the individual.

Hypnosis has also been employed in the alleviation of physical pain, often with great success, as demonstrated by James Esdaile in India , where he was able to perform amputations without anaesthetic, due to the absolute faith his patients had in his ability to heal them – something that he was not easily able to replicate in Britain. However, this deep state is now often referred to as the Esdalle or coma state, where the individual shows signs of anaesthesia and does not respond to suggestion. Whilst this is only achievable in a relatively small percentage of individuals, it is a very valuable treatment for those undergoing surgery.

Hypnosis can also be used in emergency situations where a person may have suffered terrible injury and is in a great deal of pain. Hypnotic suggestions can be applied whilst waiting for the emergency services to arrive, which can also serve as a distraction mechanism. Where there is significant pain, glove anaesthesia techniques may also be employed.

On the subject of pain, hypnosis is also now being used during childbirth, a method known as hypnobirthing, to minimise discomfort to the mother. Similarly, hypnosis is employed in dentistry, allowing some patients to undergo treatment without anaesthetic, or to allow them to feel more comfortable about visiting the dentist.

Far from the clinical setting is the application of hypnosis used on the stage, whereby the hypnotist's main aim is to provide maximum entertainment for the audience. In such instances, the hypnotist will carefully select the “best” participants, who will be willing and extroverted individuals, and often if the stage hypnotist is very well known, individuals may go into hypnosis with very little effort!

At the other end of the spectrum, hypnotherapy is the use of hypnosis to apply various forms of psychotherapy to the client. Hypnotherapy can successfully treat those individuals suffering from neurosis, as opposed to psychosis or other forms of mental illness, such as Borderline Personality Disorder and schizophrenia. Often neuroses can be dealt with successfully if the onset was after the age of 3 ½ years, and not part of the client's fundamental conditioning, which may be much harder to deal with.

Hypnotherapy can be used to reduce the emotional stacks within an individual that have been built upon over months, or even years, and help to restore their confidence. Depression, which often involves feelings of low self-esteem, can be treated, although it would be necessary to ensure that the client was receiving the necessary medication before beginning therapy. This works two-fold: it can tell the therapist whether he or she is dealing with lethargic depression, rather than bi-polar disorder which is classed as psychosis, and also reduce the risk of suicide if the therapy on its own was to motivate the client enough to begin making future plans.

Since our immune system is controlled by our subconscious, psychosomatic and psychogenic illness is also another area where hypnotherapy can be of great help, although it is essential that the client is referred to a GP to rule out any physical or organic cause. Whilst a cure can never be promised, often the client's illness can become more manageable, with less frequent symptoms, providing them with a better quality of life. Examples of such illnesses include migraines, arthritis, Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) and skin conditions.

Where certain hypnotherapy techniques are not proving effective at alleviating the individual from their symptoms, hypnoanalysis can be applied. This works by using techniques, such as regression, and can also include ego states therapy and time track therapy, to uncover the cause and effect of deep rooted issues within the client's subconscious that may have been repressed to protect the client from trauma.

Regression to cause may be adopted for those suffering from one particular symptom, maybe affecting just one area of their life. Free association, originally devised by Freud, can be combined with hypnosis to assist individuals displaying a wide range of symptoms; for example, a depressed individual who may be showing signs of general anxiety, low-self esteem and suffers from migraines.

Often analytical work has the benefit of often achieving faster results than psychotherapy and psychoanalysis, and is frequently used from the outset with problems such as Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, tinnitus and psychosexual difficulties.

Hypnotherapy cannot completely change a person's entire personality, although the Ancestral Memory approach can be applied effectively to assist individuals in bringing out their best qualities and adapting to a variety of situations they may encounter. This can also assist in inter-personal relationships with others, and take away with them a greater understanding of why people act the way they do.

The use of hypnosis isn't just restricted to those working as hypnotherapists, hypnoanalysts and stage hypnotists as their main profession. It is being adopted by people from a whole range of backgrounds, including counsellors, reiki healers and even managers of corporations who want to use self-hypnosis within the workplace to reduce stress and encourage both themselves and employees to be more productive.

One of the huge benefits in using hypnosis is the fact that there are no unwanted side-effects. Whilst some individuals may feel worse after a few sessions of therapy, a sign of subconscious resistance, or experience abreactions during a session, even these are positive events, leading the way to healing.

It is hoped that, with increased awareness from the public, together with tougher regulations to practice, more people will understand the various applications of hypnosis and hypnotherapy, and turn to them more frequently as complementary approaches to traditional medicine.

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The Use of Hypnotherapy in the Treatment of Functional Dyspepsia

In this article, I shall review the evidence that suggests that the æ tiology of functional dyspepsia has a significant psychological component, and the evidence that suggests that hypnotherapy is effective in its treatment, with the aim of meriting the implementation of further clinical trials and the involvement of professionals skilled in hypnosis in the management of the condition.

Definition

Dyspepsia, commonly known as ‘indigestion', is a non-specific term used to describe symptoms of abdominal discomfort that are episodic or persistent and are thought to originate from the upper gastrointestinal tract. Such symptoms may include abdominal pain, heartburn, bloating, belching, nausea, and vomiting. It is an extremely common cause of morbidity in the UK , affecting over 25% of the population each year. Of the organic causes of dyspepsia, peptic ulcer disease accounts for approximately 20% of all cases of dyspepsia, and approximately 80% of these cases are thought to be attributable to infection by Helicobacter pylori . Other organic causes of dyspepsia include reflux œsophagitis, which is responsible for approximately 10% of cases, and upper gastrointestinal malignancy, which is serious but accounts for fewer than 2% of cases. However, in up to 60% of all cases of dyspepsia, there is no evidence of organic disease on investigation. These patients are said to have functional dyspepsia.

Psychological factors in the ætiology

Although the pathogenesis of functional dyspepsia is unclear, epidemiological studies have shown the condition to be strongly associated with psychological factors. Anxiety, neuroticism, somatisation, and depression, have been found to be commoner in patients with functional dyspepsia compared to healthy controls, and in some cases of functional dyspepsia, symptoms have been known to coincide with identifiable causes of stress. 1 Abnormal illness behaviour has also been observed in sufferers of functional dyspepsia. Furthermore, studies have shown that psychological factors can produce alterations in gastrointestinal physiology. 2 This evidence suggests that psychological factors play a rôle in the ætiology of functional dyspepsia, and, as we shall see, this has implications on how it responds to different treatment methods.

In addition to psychological factors, visceral hypersensitivity, or an augmented perception of visceral pain, is thought to be a factor associated with functional dyspepsia. Studies have shown that patients with functional dyspepsia are more sensitive to gastric distension by the inflation of an intragastric balloon, and to intraduodenal acid infusion, compared to healthy controls. 3 However, this was only found in a proportion of patients with the condition, and so visceral hypersensitivity cannot be considered to be a universal feature of functional dyspepsia. Nevertheless, this too may have implications on the responsiveness of the condition to different treatment methods, particularly hypnotherapy.

The rôle of hypnotherapy

Over recent times, there has been a growing interest in the use of psychological interventions, such as hypnotherapy, to treat functional dyspepsia. This is, perhaps, justified, considering that psychological factors, as I have discussed, have been shown to play a rôle in the ætiology of the condition. In other words, since the underlying mechanisms of functional dyspepsia may be susceptible to modulation by the mind, there is reason to suggest that the condition might be amenable to treatment with psychological therapies that target the mind, such as hypnosis.

Hypnosis is a physical and mental state in which the body is relaxed and the mind is intensely focused and receptive. In this state, therapeutic suggestions can be made, in order to assist the patient to take control of a condition. Such a process is called hypnotherapy . Different specific protocols have been developed for different conditions, and the term clinical hypnosis is used when referring to the use of such a specific protocol in a medical framework to treat a specific condition.

Hypnotherapy has been shown to be effective in the management of another functional gastrointestinal condition, namely irritable bowel syndrome. Like functional dyspepsia, irritable bowel syndrome is not associated with any underlying organic disease, and is strongly associated with psychological factors. The results of the first formal research study on the use of hypnotherapy in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome showed that the patients who received hypnotherapy showed marked improvements in their condition compared to the patients who received psychotherapy and placebo tablets. 4 The effectiveness of hypnotherapy in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome begs the question of whether it may also be effective in other functional gastrointestinal disorders, such as functional dyspepsia.

The hypothesis that some patients with functional dyspepsia have an increased visceral hypersensitivity also supports the idea that functional dyspepsia may be amenable to treatment with hypnosis. Studies have shown that hypnosis can modulate the cognitive appraisal of pain, in such a way that although the patient still registers the sensation, the perception of unpleasantness is reduced. They found that the activity of the anterior cingulate cortex and prefrontal cortex, two cortical areas involved in the cognitive appraisal of pain, increases during hypnotic suggestion for the control of pain. 5 This may be one of the mechanisms that underlie the ability of hypnosis to produce analgesia in patients. Since the visceral hypersensitivity that is sometimes associated with functional dyspepsia is, in essence, an augmented sensitivity to visceral pain, it is not unreasonable to suggest that it may respond to treatment with hypnosis.

Considering the rôles of psychological factors and visceral hypersensitivity in the ætiology of functional dyspepsia, an appropriate clinical hypnosis protocol for use in the treatment of the condition may include suggestions of abdominal comfort and warmth, confidence, greater self-control, and an ego-strengthening script with a physical emphasis. These can aim to modulate the cognitive appraisal of pain, achieve a greater awareness and control of gastrointestinal physiology, and manage any internal stressors that may be underlying the symptoms.



The Wythenshawe trial

The first formal research study on the efficacy of hypnotherapy for functional dyspepsia was a randomised controlled trial, performed by Dr Calvert and his team in Wythenshawe Hospital , Manchester , England , in 2002. 6 The study investigators recruited patients with dyspepsia who had showed negative results on upper gastrointestinal endoscopy. Patients with symptoms of reflux œsophagitis, a past medical history of peptic ulcer disease, recent gastrointestinal surgery, current infection by Helicobacter pylori , or who were regularly using non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, were excluded from the trial, to rule out anyone whose symptoms may have had an underlying organic cause. The remaining 126 patients, who fulfilled the diagnostic criteria for functional dyspepsia, were randomised to receive hypnotherapy, supportive therapy plus placebo medication, or medical treatment with ranitidine in an oral dosage of 150mg twice a day, for 16 weeks. The short-term and long-term percentage changes in symptomatology from baseline were assessed after 16 weeks and 56 weeks, respectively. Quality of Life scores were also measured as a secondary outcome. A total of 26 hypnotherapy, 24 supportive therapy, and 29 medical treatment patients completed all stages of the study.

The results showed that symptom scores improved significantly more in both the short-term and the long-term for the patients in the hypnotherapy group compared to those in the supportive therapy or medical treatment groups. The Quality of Life scores also improved more significantly in the short-term for the patients in the hypnotherapy group compared to those in the supportive therapy or medical treatment groups. In the long-term, the Quality of Life scores improved significantly more for the patients in the hypnotherapy and supportive therapy groups compared to those in the medical treatment group, but a number of the patients in the supportive therapy group commenced taking anti-depressants during the follow-up. In addition to this, no patients in the hypnotherapy group commenced medication during the follow-up compared to 82% of patients in the supportive therapy group and 90% of patients in the medical treatment group, and the patients in the hypnotherapy group made significantly fewer visits to their general practitioner or gastroenterologist compared to those in the supportive therapy or medical treatment groups.

This study makes a strong case for the use of hypnotherapy in the treatment of patients with functional dyspepsia. Not only does it show that hypnotherapy is highly effective in the short-term and long-term management of functional dyspepsia compared to supportive therapy and medical treatment, but it also suggests that medical treatment with ranitidine is no more effective than supportive therapy in the management of functional dyspepsia. This not only merits the use of hypnotherapy in the treatment of the condition, but also suggests that pharmacological intervention with ranitidine may, in fact, be inappropriate for patients with functional dyspepsia. Thus, the study suggests that it may be appropriate to favour hypnotherapy over unnecessary pharmacological intervention in the treatment of functional dyspepsia.

The study also suggests that treating functional dyspepsia with hypnotherapy reduces medication use and consultation rate in the long-term compared to treating it with supportive therapy or medical treatment. Therefore, the use of hypnotherapy for functional dyspepsia may have major economic advantages over the use of medication. This further merits the use of hypnotherapy to treat functional dyspepsia.



The future

The Wythenshawe trial was a promising initial study on the use of hypnotherapy for the treatment of functional dyspepsia. Unfortunately, it is also, to the author's knowledge at the time of writing, the only formal research study on the use of hypnotherapy for this condition that has been published. Further similar trials are required to see if they support the findings. In these further trials, it may be helpful to assess the effectiveness of hypnotherapy compared to medical treatment with drugs other than ranitidine that are used to treat functional dyspepsia. If the results of these trials support the findings of the Wythenshawe trial, additional trials to investigate the effectiveness of hypnotherapy when combined with medical treatment may be appropriate. However, given the high prevalence of functional dyspepsia and the safety of hypnotherapy as a treatment, it seems entirely justifiable to begin involving professionals skilled in hypnosis in the care of patients with functional dyspepsia.

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DYNAMICALLY ANCHORED SELF HYPNOSIS

A novel approach to eliminating life limiting behaviors and emotions, or enhancing performance in five minutes or less.

“Dynamically Anchored Self Hypnosis™” (DASH™) is a simple to learn and use, yet powerful technique for creating personal change developed by Hypnotherapist John Lundholm. It can be used to eliminate or reduce problem behaviors or emotions, or to enhance performance. DASH™ is so simple it might easily be dismissed as a gimmick, yet it has a sound theoretical basis, and has a proven track record.

DASH™ is done in a fully awake state, and involves a series of prescribed actions. Although it is not what most people think of as hypnosis, it conforms to the definition of hypnosis by the US Department of Education Human Services Division: "The bypass of the critical factor of the conscious mind, followed by the establishment of selective acceptable thoughts." It works by joining the power of your will to the power of your unconscious mind.

DASH™ is usually given as a take home assignment to reinforce progress made in an individual session of hypnotherapy, but in many cases it is effective as a “stand alone” technique for bringing about positive change.

HOW TO DASH™. (Basic format)

PRE-DASH™. State your intent. What do you want to accomplish? State it positively (not what you don't want or want to stop, but what you want instead), specifically (in what situations? with whom? when?) and in present tense. Example: “ I am a confident public speaker.” WRITE IT OUT.

Establish affirmations (statements of beliefs, attitudes or behavior patterns, or the goal itself) that support the achievement of your objective. For each intent or goal there are a number of appropriate affirmations; DASH™ at least three.

Affirmations are best stated as a choice and in the present tense. For example, "I choose to be calm and confident in front of an audience", “I choose to speak with clarity and enthusiasm.”

Step One.

Gather four coins, two each of coins of different denominations (pennies and nickels in this example). Place these in front of you, one each on the right and one each on the left, where you can comfortably pick them up and put them down.

Step two

Focus on your right hand and state, either aloud or under your breath: “I choose to pick up this penny.”

· “I choose to pick up this nickel.”

· “I choose to ' your affirmation'.”

· “I choose to pick up this penny and this nickel.”

Repeat this sequence with your left hand, then pick up the coins, one each, in each hand.

Focusing on your right hand, state the following:

· “I chose to pick up and now I’m holding this penny.”

· “I chose to pick up and now I’m holding this nickel.”

· “I chose to and now I ' your affirmation'.”

· “I chose to pick up and now I’m holding this penny and this nickel.”

Repeat for the left hand.

Focus on the right and state the following:

· “I choose to put down this penny.”

· “I choose to put down nickel.”

· “I choose to release all obstacles to your 'affirmation'.”

· “I choose to put down this penny and this nickel.”

Repeat for the left hand.

Step three.

Immediately at the end of the sequence put down the four coins. That’s it. The whole procedure should take less then five minutes.

Repeat the process with each affirmation. You may DASH™ on several affirmations related to the same issue at a single sitting, but only DASH™ one issue or problem area at a time. DASH™ at least twice a day, morning and at night for one week. Expect results.

As with any technique, I can’t say this with work for you, for every issue, but it takes less than five minutes to know for sure.

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Ground Your Motion Sickness with Hypnosis

It is a rare person who has not experienced, to some degree that queasy and dizzying sensation brought about by a change in equilibrium. Remember the time in your youth when you couldn’t get enough of roller coasters and other mind-boggling rides? Then, at some later age, the fun stopped and you spent most of the ride fighting off the nausea, eyes clamped shut, praying for the end of the ride.

Opting to take a roller coaster ride is a choice adults can easily defer, but avoiding an airplane, boat, train or car trip is often inconvenient, costly and sometimes even embarrassing.

A common “cure” for motion sickness is the application of a drug such as Dramamine, with side effects that include drowsiness and loss of appetite. But what’s the point of going on that fishing trip of a lifetime when you spend the majority of your trip snoozing in the forward cabin? And everyone knows that a major attraction of cruise ships is the fantastic array of available foods; you won’t be getting your share while drugged out, or worse, fighting off nausea while isolated in your stateroom.

Have you ever needed to use those airsickness “doggie-bags” while wedged between two strangers in an airplane seat? Talk about humiliating. Often, if you take the medication, you can miss out on the adventure all together, and even suffer a “drug” hangover once you arrive at your destination. A vacation in the tropics isn’t too fulfilling when you are in a fog state.

I wonder if you can imagine being free of the devastating effects of motion sickness...being able to enjoy travel without discomfort from rolling or lurching sensations. It is possible through hypnosis.

What actually causes motion sickness? According to the Encyclopaedia Brittanica, “Motion sickness is caused by contradiction between external data from the eyes and internal cues from the balance center in the inner ear. For example, in seasickness the inner ear senses the ship's motion, but the eyes see the still cabin. This stimulates stress hormones and accelerates stomach-muscle contraction, leading to dizziness, pallor, cold sweat, and nausea and vomiting. Minimizing changes of speed and direction may help, as may reclining, not turning the head, closing the eyes, or focusing on distant objects.”

Traditional preventative cures for motion sickness include drugs such as Dramamine, whose active ingredient Dimenhydrinate, may cause tiredness. There is a patch available that is worn on the body like a smoker's patch, but instead, behind the ear. It should be placed in position about 12 hours before riding. It works by administering the drug Scopolamine Hydrobromide through the skin. It may be worn up to 3 days, but cannot be reused. For those that wish to try a drug-free method, there are wristbands that apply pressure to an acupuncture point on the arm. Two bands must be worn, one on each wrist in the correct position to be effective. Even worn properly, they may not work for everyone.

Hypnosis techniques anyone can apply for relief. Research has proven that stress and fear responders in the body contribute to elevated blood pressure and tightened muscles, resulting in discomforts such as headaches, tension, dizziness and nausea.

The first step toward alleviating these symptoms involves relaxing your body. This can be achieved quickly by three simple steps: 1) Close your eyes to eliminate outside distractions 2) Breathe deeply and slowly 3) Imagine yourself in a peaceful and calm setting, perhaps your favorite place to read or relax, or maybe a safe and beautiful spot outdoors that you enjoy.

Notice as you continue breathing and mentally focusing on that place that both your mind and body gradually ease and relax. In addition, as you continue to calm yourself, clasp your hands gently together, or press the tips of a thumb and finger together. This gesture will act as a trigger in the future to assist you in reaching that relaxation even more quickly. It is a good idea to practice this technique several times a day prior to taking your trip.

Another method that is useful in reducing the discomfort of motion sickness is to actually imagine yourself experiencing your trip. As you practice the self-hypnosis for relaxation, project yourself into your trip. This is called future pacing and is supported by the belief that you become what you think. In this case, seeing yourself on your trip, enjoying yourself, feeling healthy and happy, will actually assist in the manifestation of a pleasant voyage.

So you have practiced the preceding techniques and now you are actually traveling and are still finding that you suffer from motion sickness. What can be done? To ease discomfort quickly, close your eyes and breathe deeply...then follow one of these strategies:

Regain Control. Imagine yourself with your favorite toy. Perhaps you haven’t actually played with it for a while, but you can recall a time when you spent hours learning how to manipulate and control it. Maybe it was a yo-yo, or a remote control car, or a basketball. If you didn’t have any toys when you were little, how about choosing one of your adult toys: your car or motorcycle, or even a paintbrush and canvas? Whatever it is, see and feel yourself handling it now.

Become consciously aware of the physical motion that is making you feel bad and now, transfer that motion to your toy. If the boat is rolling from side to side, imagine that movement in your toy. Realize that you are the one directing the movement now; you are in control of your toy. If you are driving a motorcycle, project your vision down the road so that each turn, every small rise and dip is anticipated and enjoyed.

Notice that the action is planned and controlled by you. You can see yourself painting a fantastic picture with your brush, perhaps dipping it into the paint rhythmically or sometimes jolting it quickly to the canvas, all in sync with the movements inspired by your voyage. As you take control of the motion, it evolves into a tolerable and perhaps even an enjoyable sensation. Reapply this method as needed. Soon you will find it will not even be necessary to close your eyes to achieve relief.

Object Imagery. An effective hypnosis tool for relieving symptoms is to imagine the discomfort, be it physical or emotional, as an object and then transform it. This amazing technique can be used for all ages.

Begin by focusing on the problem and assigning it a particular shape. This can be any shape you wish, it is entirely your choice. Add to this shape a color, a color that represents what that discomfort feels like. Imagine then the texture and consistency of the discomfort. Finally, designate the size of this object; as big as a plane or boat...or maybe it is the size of a breadbox. You choose.

As you visualize this image in your mind’s eye, begin to change the elements of the object. Start with the shape: what shape would you like it to become? See it change into the newly desired shape. Imagine now changing the color to a color you wish, and continue by varying the object’s texture and consistency. See it evolve before your eyes, transforming under your command. Next, change the size of the object, watching it as it now appears completely different.

Finally, create a way to let that object go. You may want to attach a helium balloon to it, or place it on the wing of a bird. It doesn’t matter how, but notice the feeling as you watch that transformed object slowly float away, drifting up into the clouds of your consciousness. And notice, too, that you can keep it in sight if you want and in fact, can even retrieve it if you need to.

Secondary gain from motion sickness. One of the keys to reducing or eliminating an illness or malady requires discovering its source or casual factor. Unfortunately, understanding and treating the issue is not always enough to make it go away. This is due primarily to a phenomena described as “secondary gain”.

Secondary gain is a method by which a sufferer either consciously or subconsciously receives benefit from being ill. For example, a person with a back injury, although he is actually experiencing the misery of the injury, may benefit hugely from secondary gains. This could be in the form of being able to stay home from work, receiving sympathy, attention and care giving from friends and family, being able to avoid normal chores at home, financial benefits, etc.

Often the benefits of secondary gain overshadow the benefits of recovery and play a large role in restricting recovery and even influencing reoccurring episodes of the illness or injury.

Keeping secondary gain in mind is crucial when addressing an issue such as motion sickness. It is important to consider any possible reasons why a sufferer may be, albeit unaware of doing so, encouraging the problem. Hidden secondary gain may be: a deep desire to avoid taking a trip, an undiscovered phobia of speed, water or heights, a craving for attention and care giving, avoidance of having to participate in activities, a fear or dislike of lack of control, etc. In addition to debilitating the physical source of motion sickness, it is ultimately recommended to understand and deal with any suspected secondary gain. This may be done through self-hypnosis methods or with the help of a qualified professional, depending on the depth and severity of the issue.

Hypnosis is an affordable, natural and effective solution toward the treatment of motion sickness. The days of crazy roller coast rides may be long past, but with a little pre-planning and practice, nearly anyone who suffers from this restrictive malady can find relief and be able to enjoy travel and vacations.

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Therapeutic Metaphors & Clinical Hypnosis

The term “metaphor” comes from the greek word metapherein,meaning “to carry over or transfer” ( meta=”beyond,between,over” + pherein=”to bring or to bear” ).
In greek, a “metaphor” is something that moves other things between places. A moving van or baggage cart, for example, would literally be a “metaphor” in Greece. When applied to deeper levels of experience, what becomes “transferred” or “carried over” by a metaphor are relationships, placement of attention, feelings, beliefs, thoughts, limiting values, wrong presuppositions, etc.....

According to Webster’s Dictionary, a metaphor is “a figure of speech in which a word or phrase denoting one kind of object or action is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them” and involves “the transference of the relation between one set of objects to another set for the purpose of brief explanation”.

In the innovative and mind-expanding book 'Metaphors We Live By', linguist George Lakoff and philosopher Mark Johnson say: “The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another” and "We understand experience metaphorically when we use a gestalt from one domain of experience to structure experience in another domain."

A symbol is the smallest unit of metaphor, consisting of a single object, image, or word representing the essence of the quality or an attribute it stands for.
The following is a Jung's definition of a symbol: "A word or an image is symbolic when it implies something more than its obvious and immediate meaning. It has a wider 'unconscious' aspect that is never precisely defined or fully explained. Nor can one hope to define or explain it. As the mind explores the symbol, it is led to ideas that lie beyond the grasp of reason."

The following quotes about metaphor illustrate its importance:

1.From Karl Pribram, 'Metaphors to Models: the use of analogy in neuropsychology' in Metaphors in the History of Psychology, edited by David E. Leary (1990) Cambridge University Press [page 79]:

"Brain scientists have, in fact, repeatedly and fruitfully used metaphors, analogies, and models in their attempts to understand their data. The theme of this essay is that only by the proper use of analogical reasoning can current limits of understanding be transcended. Furthermore, the major metaphors used in the brain sciences during this century have been provided by inventions that, in turn, were produced by brains. Thus, the proper use of analogical reasoning sets in motion a self-reflective process by which, metaphorically speaking, brains come to understand themselves."

2.From Dedre Gentner and Michael Jeziorski, 'The shift from metaphor to analogy in Western science' in Metaphor and Thought, edited by Andrew Ortony (1993, Second Edition) Cambridge University Press [page 447 and 478]:

"Analogy and metaphor are central to scientific thought. They figure in discovery, as in Rutherford's analogy of the solar system for the atom or Faraday's use of lines of magnetized iron filings to reason about electric fields. They are also used in teaching: novices are told to think of electricity as analogous to water flowing through pipes or of a chemical process as analogous to a ball rolling down a hill. Yet for all its usefulness, analogical thinking is never formally taught to us. We seem to think of it as a natural human skill, and of its use in science as a straightforward extension of its use in commonsense reasoning. For example, William James believed that 'men, taken historically, reason by analogy long before they have learned to reason by abstract characters'. All this points to an appealing intuition: that a faculty for analogical reasoning is an innate part of human cognition”

Therapeutic metaphor is one of the most elegant tools available for assisting people in the process of personal transformation, healing and growth.The major purpose of therapeutic metaphor is to pace and lead an individual’s experience through the telling of a story which helps that individual access resources necessary for change.

In a therapeutic context metaphors are used as tools for transformation facilitating new patterns of thoughts, feelings and behavior. If constructed properly, they are very successful and powerful in fostering the change because they communicate directly with the subconscious mind, bypassing the critical faculty of the conscious mind.

Metaphors and stories,in a therapeutic context, may be useful:

* To provide a key mechanism for changing our modes of representing the world.
* To cause something to be remembered.
* To make, demonstrate,explain or illustrate a point.
* To create generative realities.
* To open up possibilities and strategies.
* To normalize or otherwise re-contextualize a particular position or content.
* To carry multiple levels of information.
* To facilitate new patterns of thoughts,behavior and feelings.
* To stimulate lateral thinking and creativity.
* To reframe or redefine a problem or situation.
* To introduce doubt into a position that holds that there is only "one" way.
* To provide or guide associations and thinking along certain lines.
* To allow the client to form a choice or find his own direction.
* To bypass normal ego defenses.
* To allow the client to process directly at a subconscious level (indirect
suggestions).
* To shift the subject or redirect the discussion.
* To suggest solutions and new options.
* To provide a gateway between the conscious and the unconscious.
* To pass suggestions to the subconscious mind.
* To increase rapport and communication.
* To facilitate retrieval of resource experiences.
* To lighten up the mood.


Metaphors (imaginative, but not literal, descriptions of objects, events, processes etc.) can enrich, and accelerate, the emergence and sharing of ideas and models. If the process is used properly, it greatly reduces the likelihood that people are operating on assumption or misinterpretation and all the problems that this can cause. A metaphorical story in a therapeutic context consists of elements that symbolically represent the client's problem and offers a solution to the client's problem in an indirect manner.

According to Robert Dilts,a metaphor is essentially a fantasy which places the “reality” of the listener at some level.The meaning of a story or metaphor is typically not in the specific events that make up its content (its ‘surface structure’), but rather in the underlying patterns or principles it conveys (its ‘deep structure’).

The value of metaphor is that it can bypass conscious resistances, and serves to stimulate creativity and lateral thinking in relation to a problem. Metaphorical thinking provides a gateway between the conscious and the unconscious and between ‘left brain’ and ‘right brain’ processing.

Therapeutic metaphors encourage people to focus on the deeper structure relationships between their reality and that of the story.The therapeutic value of the metaphor lies in the similarity of its deep structure to the deep structure of the problem (formal properties), even though the surface level characters and details (the content) are very different.

The fact that stories and metaphors are non-literal also makes it possible for them to provide a way of thinking that is different from the way of thinking that is creating the problem.
One of the main characteristics of therapeutic metaphors is that they are open ended, thereby allowing listeners to draw on their own resources for a solution.

Like all other forms of communication, a great deal of the influence of a therapeutic metaphor comes from the non-verbal ‘meta messages’ that accompany the oral presentation.
Voice inflection, gestures and facial expression are used to convey a large portion of the metaphor’s meaning. Key words and phrases may be marked out by shifts in voice tone and tempo. Embedded messages, analogic markings and other linguistic and non-linguistic may also be employed within the context of a metaphor to enhance and increase the effectiveness of its outcome.

There are two major components in creating a therapeutic metaphor: symbolism and isomorphism.

1.-Symbolism involves the substitution of one ‘referential index’ for another. Metaphor is defined as “a figure of speech in which something is spoken of as if it were another”.
In the case of therapeutic metaphors, the client and his circumstances are spoken of ‘as if’ they were the characters in a story. A symbol is a character, situation or object that stands for some aspect of the client’s reality.

2.-Isomorphism involves establishing similarities between the behaviors, relationships and situations of different individuals (e.g.the client and the symbolic character).

In general, symbols will identify the structural aspects of the metaphors, while isomorphism will deal with the relational or syntactic components.

The use of analogies or metaphors in Hypnotherapy is common and important, and indeed in all learning. They involve relating the new to something already known, so that the new may be understood by analogy with the known. Metaphors are used widely in hypnotherapy to pass suggestions to the subconscious mind while bypassing or occupying critical faculties. Typically a short phrase or story that has more than one meaning and at least one of the inherent meanings carries a hypnotic suggestion. A hypnotic metaphor is like a Trojan Horse.

Dr. Erickson's work was the inspiration for using metaphors in a therapeutic context. Milton H. Erickson has done more than any other individual this century to change the way in which Hypnotherapy is practised. Many of Erickson's methods for communicating with the Unconscious using sophisticated language patterns and metaphor are recognised now as desirable and essential for effective change.

Unorthodox psychiatrist, congenial family doctor, ingenious strategic psychotherapist and master hypnotherapist, Milton Erickson’s influence has revolutionised western psychotherapy. Thanks largely to Erickson the subject of hypnosis has shed its shackles of superstition and is now widely recognised as one of the most powerful tools for change.

Erickson emphasized indirect communications to the so-called unconscious, the use of anecdotes and metaphors to shift the frame of experiential reference, embedded (unconsciously marked-out) language phrasings, the trance experience "itself" as a generalized metaphor to re-shape consciousness, and what might be called a meta-level regression psychology, in which one pointed not to the content of past experiences (to expose repressed traumatic material, for example)...but to the structure of certain typical childhood (or life-stage) experiences of growing up (what Ernest Rossi called "Early Learning Sets"), in order to utilize those structures as re-usable metaphors to re-shape one's current (problematic) experiencing. Naturalistic and conversational hypnosis as well as strategic interaction, metaphors, tasks, and his personal and creative qualities were his major therapeutic tools.

The major elements of constructing a therapeutic metaphor, according to Robert Dilts, include:

1. Transferring focus from the individual to some character in the story.
2. Pacing the individual’s problem by establishing an isomorphism with respect to
the behaviors,the events and the characters in the story that are parallel to
those in the individual’s situation.
3. Accesing resources for the individual within the context of the story.
4. Finishing the story such that a sequence of events occurs in wich the characters resolve the conflict and achieve the desired outcome.

Erickson told many stories and told them to a variety of clients. As he said of his treatment for a young, anorexic girl, "My treatment for Barbie was to tell her short stories, metaphors, suspenseful stories, intriguing stories, boring stories. I told her all kinds of stories, little stories" (Zeig, 1980). He illustrated the experiences he wanted his clients to retrieve as they fixated their attention upon the dramatic aspects of an unfolding story line about someone else. Clients were free to create their own meaning from the stimulus offered and even have learnings too painful for the conscious mind to tolerate. After all, it was "only a story."
As such, metaphor can be considered an altered framework through which a client is free to entertain novel experiences.

Milton H.Erickson gives an account of how he used isomorphism while working with a couple having marital difficulties over their sexual behavior.Erickson talked to the couple about their eating habits.He found that their eating habits paralleled the individual sexual behaviors that were causing the difficulty.The husband was a ‘meat-and-potatoes” man and liked to head right for the main course, while the wife liked to linger over appetizers and delicacies.
For their therapy,Erickson had them plan a meal together ‘from soup to nuts’, in which they both were able to attain satisfaction.The couple, of course, had no idea of the significance of the event, but were pleasantly surprised to find that their sex life improved dramatically afterwards.

Any of the therapeutic goals illustrated with metaphor will be interpreted differently by each unique client who filters them through perceptions and experiences unique to his or her personal history. But still, the stories are constructed and delivered (emphasizing and detailing particular experiences with indirect suggestions and binds) based on specific therapy goals. These stories stimulate clients to do a good bit of focused thinking which facilitates retrieval of resource experiences not customarily available or associated to in particular problem contexts.

Milton H. Erikson has been called the most influential hypnotherapist of our time. Closely related to his therapy was his use of "teaching tales." Calling upon shock, surprise, confusion - with generous use of questions, puns, and playful humor - he seeded suggestions indirectly and positively with therapeutic metaphors.

Reading his many case studies in such books as ‘Uncommon Therapy’ and the subtle metaphorical approaches of his storytelling in ‘My voice will go with you’ is like entering another dimension. Since it was first published, in 1982, ‘My voice will go with you’ has been one of the most popular and most readable introductions to the innovative psychotherapeutic and hypnotic approaches of Milton Erickson

Dr. Erickson's work was also the inspiration and foundation for such innovative therapies as Bandler and Grinder's Neuro-Linguistic Programming, Steve de Shazer's Solution Talk therapy, the interactionalist approach of Haley, Watzlawick, Fisch, et.al. at M.R.I., brief therapy, and the refined use of metaphor, paradox, confusion, therapeutic tasks, reframing, and many other advances.

Once there was a well known philosopher and scholar who devoted himself to the study of Zen for many years. On the day that he finally attained enlightenment, he took all of his books out into the yard, and burned them all.

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Hypnotherapy Technique or Profession

This paper is derived from what seems to be the age old question as to whether hypnotherapy is technique or profession. This controversy affects the acceptance of hypnotherapy conducted by those without a formal qualification in another discipline, be it medicine, psychology, counselling or psychotherapy.

The hypothesis to be investigated was whether hypnotherapy has a theoretical basis along similar lines to counselling and psychotherapy models in that listening skills and the therapeutic alliance are utilised, either implicitly or explicitly.

One difficulty in arguing that hypnotherapy is a profession is the lack of common standards of training. Another difficulty is the lack of clinical training that generally comes with medical or psychological training. A way to augment this might be the incorporation of counselling skills in the clinical practise of hypnotherapy. This could be achieved in either formal qualification or informal experience. This study looked at how much these factors already exist, and involved investigation, using questionnaire and interview, of three different therapy groups; qualified counsellors/psychotherapist who use hypnosis as an adjunct, counsellors/psychotherapists who use hypnosis as their prime therapy, and therapists with only hypnotherapy training.

Historically, hypnotherapy as a discipline has been hard to define as it has been claimed to be part of the medical, psychological, and complementary therapy fields. Parts of its practise fit in to each of these fields, but it does not fit entirely into any one of them.

Since 1954, the British Medical Association has recognised hypnosis as a valuable therapeutic modality, but many noted psychologists and psychiatrists have taken the position of hypnotherapy being solely a technique. (Waxman, 1989). Many also took the view that only physicians, psychologists and dentists should be allowed to practise hypnosis in any form (Erickson & Rossi, 1980).

In recent years, however, this view has begun to be questioned. In the United States, the Department of Labour gave an occupational designation of hypnotherapist (Boyne 1989). In the United Kingdom, with the advent of the popularity of complementary therapies, hypnotherapy is recognised as one of the four discrete disciplines that have been studied to determine clinical efficacy (Mills & Budd, 2000).

The clinical application of hypnosis, hypnotherapy, is a directed process used in order to effect some form of behavioural change in a client. This change is achieved by first eliciting information from the client, and then devising a way of reflecting it back to the client in a way that the client will both understand and act upon (Hogan, 2000).

Vontress (1988) gives us this definition of counselling:
“Counselling is a psychological interaction involving two or more individuals. One or more of the interactants is considered able to help the other person(s) live and function more effectively at the time of the involvement or in the future. Specifically, the goal of counselling is to assist the recipients directly or indirectly in adjusting to or otherwise negotiating environments that influence their own or someone else’s psychological well-being.” (Vontress 1988 pg7)

There seems to be little difference in the definitions given by Hogan and Vontress. The obvious difference being that hypnotherapy uses hypnosis as a vehicle for behavioural change. If this is the case, the primary difference between counselling and hypnotherapy is the use that is made of trance states. That is to say that hypnosis is the vehicle for the counselling dynamic.

The Vontress definition does not analyse how the changes take place. Knowledge of most of the main counselling models would suggest that the use of skills, primarily creating the core conditions, or therapeutic alliance, and active listening, are the basis of the process of change. If this is taken as a given, it can then be asked whether these conditions exist in the hypnotherapeutic relationship and affect the outcome of therapy. This raises the question of the level of understanding of this process amongst those practising hypnotherapy.

For this study, a thorough review of literature relating to the theoretical basis of hypnotherapy was undertaken, but few references could be found which either confirm or deny the hypothesis that hypnotherapists utilise the therapeutic alliance and listening skills, or that their awareness, or not, of therapeutic process was relevant to their work as therapists.

Many standard works on hypnotherapy refer to the need for rapport, but often do not define this, or give details of how it can be obtained. Many use the term hypnosis and almost ignore the “therapy” part, and simply list tools or scripts, without explaining the reasons why these are considered to “work”.

The first part of the study was a self-reporting questionnaire, sent to 300 hypnotherapists, 82 of whom responded. This quantitative data gave information as to the qualifications of the respondents, their self-reported knowledge and use of counselling skills and the therapeutic alliance, and their primary mode of therapy.

Counselling skills seem to play a significant part in the professional practise of hypnotherapy. For the majority of those questioned, 85.4%, counselling skills play a role in their hypnotherapeutic practice. There was divergence in the replies of those who do not use counselling skills in their practices. In reply to the question as to what makes their work therapeutic most stated that hypnosis gives direct access to the unconscious mind and therefore can facilitate change, and so counselling is not necessary in this process. Some cite evidence of hypnosis being therapeutic back to Milton Erickson and as his work was therapeutic so was theirs. Erickson stated that much of hypnosis is based on the development and maintenance of rapport (Erickson & Rossi 1980). Most counselling training emphasises the importance of rapport and considers rapport building (or the creation of the core conditions) to be a counselling skill. It can be therefore assumed that though these practitioners use counselling skills, they are either unaware of this or unwilling to acknowledge it.

Despite being qualified in other areas, the questionnaire uncovers an interesting finding regarding how therapists identify themselves. If we take the 25 respondents who do not claim to have any other formal therapeutic qualifications away from these figures, this shows that 42 who hold other qualifications identify themselves as being primarily a hypnotherapist. This is interesting from a labelling position, as hypnotherapy has not always enjoyed favourable publicity and with many leading figures who claim that hypnotherapy was not a therapy but a series of techniques, still a majority of those questioned identify themselves as hypnotherapists.

These answers were used to formulate interview questions that were then put to a subset of the previous respondents.

This subset included a male and a female therapist from each of the three groups: qualified counsellors/psychotherapist who use hypnosis as an adjunct, counsellors / psychotherapists who use hypnosis as their prime therapy, and therapists with only hypnotherapy training. The interview comprised 12 open questions designed to elicit information as to whether and how the therapist used counselling skills and their depth of understanding of the therapeutic alliance. Their answers were judged by a panel of five senior practitioners and the author, all of whom hold advanced degrees in counselling or psychotherapy.

The data seems to indicate that though the understanding of what hypnosis is remains fairly consistent through the three target groups, the depth of knowledge seems greater in the qualified counsellor/psychotherapist categories as opposed to those who have only a training in hypnotherapy as their qualification.

Additionally, the data indicates that the qualified counsellors/psychotherapists have a greater understanding of therapeutic process and how and why their form of treatment is successful compared to those with only training in hypnotherapy.

This study also finds that counselling skills appear to be used, at least to some extent, within the practise of hypnotherapy whether the practitioner realises this or not and so the importance of counselling skills within the context of therapeutic process cannot be ignored.

It would be logical to infer that if these skills are being used, then those that understand them- ie those with the qualifications in these areas, will use them more effectively. It was beyond the scope of this study to look at the efficacy of the practice of the different types of therapist.

This conclusion has various implications for individual therapists and the field as a whole. Therapists engaged in the professional practice of hypnotherapy may need to quantitative data gave information as to the qualifications of the respondents, their self-reported knowledge and use of counselling skills and the therapeutic alliance, and their primary mode of therapy.

These answers were used to formulate interview questions that were then put to a subset of the previous respondents.

The whole field may be affected in that professional societies may need to consider re-evaluating membership criteria, and these factors need to be taken into consideration during any process of statutory or voluntary regulation.

As discussed earlier in this paper, the reason for conducting the research was an interest in the question whether hypnotherapy is a profession or a technique.

The results of the study would support the idea that hypnotherapy is a profession in its own right, not just a technique, and has a basis consistent with the basis of counselling. The findings of this report directly contradict Waxman’s assertion, that the majority of non-medically/psychologically qualified hypnotherapists hold no formal therapeutic qualifications (Waxman 1989). It can be inferred by the numbers of hypnotherapists who use counselling skills, that counselling skills are a major component to the practice of hypnotherapy. This implies that practitioners have either engaged in independent study or studied for formal qualifications in counselling or psychotherapy, which again goes some way to validate the importance of counselling skills in the practice of hypnotherapy.

Additionally, as shown in this paper, there are practitioners who though are credentialed in other mental health fields who identify themselves as hypnotherapists as opposed to counsellors or psychotherapists. The implications of this may be that as far as public is concerned the title hypnotherapist is easier to recognise than the plethora of counselling and psychotherapy titles currently in use. Alternatively, these practitioners may not be interested in the biases of leading practitioners and prefer to determine their own identity.

It is hoped that these conclusions will help to form a more general consensus as to what hypnotherapy is and to lead to an eventual unification of standards in hypnotherapy. This information could be useful to the future training of hypnotherapists as far as exploring different models of therapy and the need for accountability in the therapeutic relationship. Those who were qualified in either psychotherapy or counselling also seemed to have a better theoretical understanding of therapy as a concept and how hypnotherapy fits into the hierarchy of therapies.
The authors hope to undertake further research in this area, and extend their studies to incorporate the efficacy of therapy. Any readers who have been involved in similar studies of have relevant data would be welcome to make contact.

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Mind - Body Communication

Your mind is much like a computer, what you experience shows up on the monitor of your consciousness, without a thought of where it came from. But, like your computer, much work happens behind the scenes, processes, programs, electrical pathways of information and direction, and the vast storage of memory.

You may think that you have one mind, but you actually have two, or perhaps better put, you have two parts of one mind: the conscious and the unconscious. The conscious mind, like the computer monitor, allows you to experience what’s going on, gives you choices, and brings awareness, allows you to interact.

When you use your computer, occasionally you get automatic messages that pop-up on the screen. Most of these messages are routine prompts from the computer to perform a routine action, and others come with immediate warning, and may bring a sense of confusion and frustration. These messages come from the computer program or processor, from behind the scenes, just like the thoughts and feelings which appear in your mind, seemingly out of nowhere.

Ever wonder where your thoughts come from? Some are directed by the conscious process of concentration, initiated by a focus of directed thought. But, most thoughts throughout the day seem to just pop into your mind. If you're like most people, you then feel the obligation to begin pondering on those thoughts, sometimes right out to the bitter end.

The conscious mind is your monitor for the world, it gives you information for your consideration and action. Before you take action you must choose, using your critical thinking, will power, and judgement… all, important facets of your conscious mind.

Your unconscious mind, however, is void of judgement. Like the computer processor, it performs its functions dutifully and without question. A computer will run a bad program, just as well as it does a good program. It does what it believes you want by the direction it is given.

Unwittingly, you give direction to your unconscious mind every day. Each time you repeat an action, each time you use a common word or phrase, and even the emotions you feel most often become direction for your unconscious mind. This direction we can also call learning. As a computer is programmed, so to is your unconscious mind through all of your life's experiences. The unconscious mind, running all body systems and automatic functions, takes in all of your experiences, all sensory input from sight, sound, touch, taste, smell, and so on. It also records events, images, thoughts, and feelings over your entire life span, and stores them in the form of memory. It has been estimated that the human memory can store billions of bits of information each second, and by the time you're eighty or ninety you still will have only used about two-thirds of its capacity. Your memory seems virtually limitless.

The problem is, you don't need all that information. It would be system overload if all of your life's experiences came flooding through. When you're on your computer looking for a file or searching the web for information, you don't want all the data your computer has stored, you just want the information you need at this moment.

Therefore, the unconscious mind must have a way to process information, and to prioritize and retrieve what it believes you need, when you need it. It must learn. In fact, one of the prime directives of the unconscious is to gain learning. As the unconscious has no judgement, it regards everything as learning.

Your learned behaviors can be good or bad for you. We all possess both good habits and bad habits, but you may not be aware that they are formed by the same process of unconscious learning.

Consciously you can determine, or choose what is desired and not desired. But your conscious mind isn't always given the choice before the unconscious has acted upon it. The unconscious mind provides a short cut to all of your inner resources; memory, recall, creativity, and body functions.

Everything you are good at, every talent, skill, and ability follows this same path of learning. This unconscious learning occurs in three primary ways: repetition, association, and emotion.

Repetition - the more you repeat a behavior, the more you are likely to repeat the behavior, as your unconscious mind develops an easy pathway for it. Your mind believes you want this frequently used behavior by the very fact that you keep on doing it. Actions sometimes speak louder than words. Look at the smoking habit, what more than smoking does a smoker do each day. A pack a day smoker repeats this behavior 20 times a day, every day. There's a lot of repetition there. That's why “practice makes perfect”. Even things you start out doing bad, in time become easier as you master the behavior, talent or skill.

Because your unconscious runs all your body systems, it can help you develop in the repeated behavior. Every smoker will tell you that in the beginning cigarette taste terrible. But, in time, with practice and diligence, repeating smoking over and over, an amazing thing happens. The cigarette that tasted terrible now becomes enjoyable. The unconscious mind, taking in all the information from your body and all the senses, makes it easier for you by adjusting the sensory information to make it more enjoyable. This is how you acquire tastes for things. The unconscious mind helps you do what it believes you want, without judgment, even if its bad for you.

This is a good example of the difference in conscious and unconscious processing. The conscious mind knows all of the dangers and problems of smoking, yet, the unconscious mind, connected to the body, drives the smoking habit.

Even if you don't smoke there are plenty of examples in your life of this process. Have you ever worked at a place for several years, driving your car the same route every day? Then, one morning you drive to work, park your car, and as you close the door think…”how did I get here?” While your conscious mind was wandering in dream, worry, or thought, your unconscious mind and your body were driving the car. They know the route well. Or, have you ever been anxious to get home, and suddenly look down to find that you are speeding. Your foot has unconsciously pressed down further on the pedal. Just the thought made your body react, without any guidance from your conscious mind.

Association – the unconscious mind works primarily by association. As one behavior is associate with another, there is a double bind. That's why even the aroma of coffee can bring about an urge to smoke a cigarette. Have you every noticed that when you turn on the TV you suddenly feel a bit hungry? When you are with friends telling jokes, does that trigger you to suddenly think of some funny things yourself? Since your unconscious mind and your body are in constant communication, your body reacts to these triggers.

Emotion - emotion is the most powerful form of communication from the unconscious mind. Isn't it true that your strongest and most vivid memories are those linked with strong emotion. Emotion drives the most fundamental programs for your survival, the “fight or flight” response. Think about what emotion is helpful for a fight – anger. Anger can mobilize powerful resources in your body to help you fight with power and fury. An emotion that is helpful to flee from a threat is – fear. Fear will put an extra skip in your step, allowing you sprint like an Olympic athlete. You can run pretty fast without fear, but with it your body springs into action automatically, you don't even have to think about it. Emotion helps the mind distinguish between events and information from your life's experiences, which it thinks is important for you and your survival. Those things without emotional value are lost to conscious recall.

The unconscious minds ultimate priority is to assure your survival. Keeping automatic functions like your heart beating and respiration going is a job it takes seriously. Since the unconscious lacks judgement, it interprets any negative emotion as communication to mobilize the body for action. That's why when you're anxious, stressed, worried, or depressed, you feel that unconscious muscle tension in your neck, shoulders, or back, your heart race, and that pit in your stomach.

These sensations are your body speaking to you. This communication is important for you to be aware of as your body can be used to communicate messages back as well. A tense muscle calls for more support and energy from the unconscious mind. The unconscious responds with the release of stress hormones, sympathetic nervous system response and quickened pulse. It all happens automatically, but, if a tense muscle calls for the stress response, then a relaxed muscle will reverse the request and call for relaxation.

Breathing is another powerful mind-body communication method. Breathing is important because it is an automatic system run by the unconscious mind, yet it can also be consciously controlled. Breathing provides a valuable and effective bridge of communication between conscious and unconscious mind. During stress you breathe shallow and rapidly, sometimes even holding your breath. But, when you're relaxed you breathe deep and slowly, like when you sleep. When you consciously change the rate of your breathing, a chemical change occurs in your body. Stress hormones begin to stem their flow, and the parasympathetic nervous system is engaged with all of its calming effects.

You communicate direction to your body and mind with the words you use.What words do you use in that running commentary of your inner thoughts? Are those words supportive or punishing? Words are electric, you must choose them for the emotional voltage that they carry.
Remember that emotions are the most powerful driver of unconscious processing. Words stimulate emotion, and emotion is the source of all motivation. Begin to think of your thoughts as magnetic. Whatever you hold in your predominant conscious view, will simply attract more of the same. Worry and self-doubt will come as easily as confidence and focus. The unconscious mind will give you what it believes you're asking for by association. You get what you ask for, so choose only good things.

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The Ideal Hypnosis Client

the ideal hypnosis client. But more often, it takes a measure of guidance to ready them for a great hypnosis experience.

Here's how you can get the most from your hypnosis sessions.

DESIRE WHAT YOU WISH FOR

Do you truly want to achieve your goal? People often say, "I have to quit smoking" or "I've just got to lose this weight." Both statements imply need imposed by external requirements rather than by inner desire. 'Need' has little to do with desire, while 'want' is where desire blooms; it's the passion from within. If you have desire--really want something--then you're on your way to getting what you wish for.

MAKE IT PERSONAL

What's your motivation? Your number one reason should be self-directed. I love hearing people say, "I'm fed up with this habit" or "I'm ready for a change in life." These are strong, self-motivated declarations that will carry you to success.

THINK ABOUT IT

Have you taken time to think this through? Mental preparation is also very important. I define mental preparation as giving thought to what changes will take place once you've implemented a decision. How will your life be better? What are you prepared to do to see your goal realized? Practicing self-hypnosis should be part of the process. It requires only 3 minutes a day.

SEE IT HAPPEN

Can you imagine yourself better off? How does that look to you? If you can imagine what is possible then change will happen more quickly. Look forward to being creative. Hypnosis is wonderful for tapping into the creative part of your mind that is always ready to see you through to a better you.

BE OPEN-MINDED

Are you willing to give hypnosis a chance? Resistance will hamper progress. So make a decision from the outset to be open-minded. Proceed positively and learn about the basics of what hypnosis is and how it works. Knowledge will erase fear or apprehension and sets up realistic expectations.

If you don't possess all five ingredients of the ideal hypnosis client, don't let that hold you back. Not all traits are required to succeed. That's right, not all traits are necessary for success. But developing these characteristics will greatly enhance your ability to reach your goal.

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Who Can Hypnotize

HOWEVER incomplete our knowledge may be concerning the exact nature of hypnotism, we know a great deal more about what may be called the practical side of the subject. First and foremost there is the question which is so often asked: ‘Can anyone learn to hypnotize, or is it a special gift?’

Popular imagination has pictured the hypnotist as a Svengali-like creature with dark piercing eyes and some mysterious ‘power’ with which he is able to subject ordinary people to his will. Actually, anybody can learn to hypnotize, just as they can learn any other scientific subject. Everybody can hypnotize someone, and everyone can be hypnotized by somebody.

Hypnotism is a science, but the practice of it is an art. Everybody can learn to play a musical instrument after a fashion, but there are few outstanding performers. So it is with hypnotism. It is easy to gain a smattering of the subject and perhaps hypnotize a few of the most susceptible subjects; but to use hypnotism safely as it should be used (that is, as a valuable form of medical treatment, often treating the most difficult and obscure cases) demands considerable patience and hypnotic skill, in addition to an allround medical training.

Unfortunately, those subjects who ‘sleep’ deeply are the easiest to hypnotize and could be thrown into a trance by almost anybody who happens to have even the most elementary knowledge of hypnotism. Such subjects are very likely to suffer considerable mental and physical harm in the hands of enthusiastic amateur hypnotists. And in this connection we must consider the professional stage hypnotist as an amateur: because, no matter what his hypnotic ability may be, he has no real medical knowledge.

Amateurs and stage professionals who dabble in medicine are a positive menace. Having no real medical knowledge, they are unable to diagnose disease, and content themselves with treating symptoms - which usually resolves itself into suggesting the disappearance of pain. As the only people they can hypnotize deeply and quickly are the easiest and most susceptible, they are sometimes able to achieve apparently striking results which the sensation-seeking newspapers never fail to report with a wealth of detail.

Pain, however, is often a warning symptom. A headache, for instance, may be simple, due to nerves, some organic disease such as high blood pressure, or kidney disease, or it may even be a sign of a cerebral tumour. No amateur or professional hypnotist lacking proper medical training could diagnose definitely between the various conditions. Nevertheless, hypnotism could remove the pain, but it would be nothing short of criminal to remove the pain and allow the disease to progress unchecked and unsuspected until it killed the patient.

It is this dabbling in medicine without a proper understanding of the subject, which constitutes one of the major dangers of the amateur hypnotist and the stage professional. Too often these gentlemen seek to use their hypnotic ability as a means of entering medical practice by the back door, so to speak. Unwilling, or unable, to put in the years of grinding hard work and intensive study demanded of a medical man, they are content to capitalize on their hypnotic ability to gull the public with occasional, apparently marvellous ‘cures’.

The current craze for psychology has, of course, played right into their hands. Reading a few cheap and popular books on psychology no more qualifies a person to treat the mind than reading a book on surgery would enable him to perform an operation. Yet people who would not dream of letting a butcher remove their appendix will not hesitate to let a medically unqualified hypnotist treat their mind.

The use of hypnotism for medical purposes should be confined to properly qualified medical men who have specialized in this subject. This does not mean that every doctor should dabble in hypnotism any more than he should dabble in surgery. Although many subjects can be quickly and easily hypnotized, by far the greater proportion, particularly nervous cases, demand far more time and patience than the average general practitioner has to spare.

Furthermore, there is no one foolproof method of hypnotizing which will suit everybody. The hypnotist must learn to judge which method will suit the particular patient best; and only considerable practical experience will enable the hypnotist to gain this knowledge.

Again, the patient is not likely to have any more confidence in the general practitioner who dabbles in hypnotism than he would in the doctor who experimented with surgery.

The successful hypnotist must have complete confidence in himself, with boundless enthusiasm for his subject, and considerable patience. A single word, look, tone of voice or gesture is often sufficient to turn the scale and decide whether hypnosis will be successfully achieved or not. The medical man who wishes to specialize in this work needs considerable talent for invention and improvization. Any doubt or mistrust in his own ability will reflect itself in his voice and manner, and will effectively prevent hypnosis.

No two patients are the same. Some want to be dominated, some like to be coaxed, and others like to think they are doing it all themselves. For instance, a young man was sent by his doctor for hypnotic treatment, but expressed the view that he did not think anybody could hypnotize him. When asked why he thought this, he explained that he had volunteered to be hypnotized by a stage hypnotist - who boasted some absurdly magnificent title, selfselected - but that this gentleman had been unable to influence him. In fact, the patient had unwillingly spoilt the show because the hypnotist had been deceived for a while into thinking the patient was ‘asleep’, with naturally some rather embarrassing results. Knowing that this particular performer specialized in domineering methods, and observing that the patient was obviously the type to resent this approach, a rather ‘coaxing’ technique was employed, and the patient was soon deeply in a trance.

Any hypnotist who attempts to work by a rule-of-thumb method in an automatic sort of way will achieve only a small proportion of successes. Stage hypnotists invariably have a stereotyped technique; but as they deal only with the easiest and most susceptible cases who could be hypnotized by anyone and by any method, this does not matter a great deal.

Another patient illustrates how careful a hypnotist has to be and how easily a simple suggestion can prevent a successful hypnosis. The subject, a young girl, had previously visited a lay hypnotist who had failed to hypnotize her even after repeated attempts. Enquiry revealed that he had foolishly boasted how powerful hypnosis was - so powerful, in fact, that he could even make her fall in love with him! This was said jokingly, but the patient, who was engaged to be married, did not take it as a joke, and her distrust and resistance effectively prevented any hypnosis despite his utmost efforts. On reassuring her that, for medical purposes, only a light stage of hypnosis was necessary and that she would be conscious all the time and would remember all the suggestions, hypnosis was easily achieved. To practise hypnosis for medical purposes a thorough knowledge of the laws of suggestion is highly desirable both for the purposes of induction of the trance and applying the curative suggestions.

Enough has been said to show that although anybody can pick up a rudimentary knowledge of the theory and technique of hypnosis very easily and even bring about a few spectacular successes, if one wishes to achieve consistently good results in a high proportion of cases, then considerable experience is absolutely necessary. Unlike massage or electro-therapy, hypnosis is not a suitable branch of medicine to be delegated to medical auxiliaries.

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